S 591 
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SOILS LABORATORY 
MANUAL AND NOTE BOOK 

EASTMAN AND DAVIS 



SOILS LABORATORY 
MANUAL AND NOTE BOOK 



LIPPINCOTT'S 
FARM MANUALS 

Edited by K. C. DAVIS, Ph.D. 



PRODUCTIVE 
SWINE HUSBANDRY 

(2nd Edition) 
By G. E. day, B.S.A. 

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By C. W. gay, D V M., B.S.A. 

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By FRED C. SEARS, M.S. 

Professor of Pomology 
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FEEDING OF FARM 
ANIMALS 

By F. W. WOLL, Ph.D. 

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PRODUCTIVE 
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In Preparation 



SOILS LABORATORY 
MANUAL AND NOTE BOOK 



COMPILED BY 

JASPER F. EASTMAN, M.S. 

PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE, THE NEW YORK STATE SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE AT 
MORRISVILLE, N. Y. 

AND 

KARY C. DAVIS, Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE, KNAPP SCHOOL OF COUNTRY LIFE, GEORGE PEABODY 
COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENN. 



21 ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT 




PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON 
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 



i,"-^ 



COPYRIGHT, I915, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 



Electrotyfed and Prinled hy J. B. Lippincott Company 
At the Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, U. S. A. 

©CI.A411152 



AUG 20 1915 



FOREWORD 

This Manual is intended for the use of students studying soils, whether 
they be in high schools, agricultural schools, or in colleges. It is believed 
that the experimental method of studying soils serves to fix in mind their 
characteristics and the principles concerning their best management. 

The ecjuipment to l)e used in performing these exercises is simple and 
inexpensive. In a number of exercises suggestions are given for using tin cans 
instead of regular soil tubes, and other similar sulistitutions are possible. 

Acknowledgments are due (linn and Company, Boston, for the use of 
certain exercises (4, 17, 25, and 2G), somewhat adapted for use here from 
"Soil Physics Laboratory JManual," by ]M osier and Gustafson; to Prof. E. O. 
Pippin of Cornell University Department of Soil Technology, for the use of 
exercises 3, 27, and 29, adapted from his "Laboratory Guide in Agricultural 
Soils," used by Cornell students in typewrittcni form. Many of the publica- 
tions mentioned in the reference list have l)een drawn upon freely for aid. 
Obligations are here expr^^ssed for the suggestions received from many books 

and papers on the subject. 

The Authors 
April, 1915. 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Instructions Concerning Laboratory Work in Soils 11 

Exercise" 1. — Field Study of the Processes of Soil Formation 13 

Exercise 2. — Taking Soil Samples Di 

Exercise 3. — Studj- of Soil Grains IS 

Exercise 4. — Composition of Soils 20 

Exercise 5. — Soil Classification 22 

Exercise 6. — Volume-Weight or Apinu-ent S])ecific (rravity 23 

Exercise 7. — True Specific Gravity 2() 

Exercise S. — Heavy and Liglit Soils 28 

Exercise 9.— Effects of Organic Matter 30 

Exercise 10.— Other Effects of Oi-ganic Matter 32 

Exercise 11. — Influence of Weathering, Organic Matter, Sand and Lime on a Clay Soil 31 

Exercise 12. — Effect of Lime aiul Other Chemicals on a Clay Soil 3() 

Exercise 13. — -Total Moisture Determination 38 

Exercise 14. — Capillary Moisture 40 

Exercise 15. — Hygro.scoi)ic Moisture 42 

Exercise 16. — Capillary Rise of Water in Soils of Different Texture 44 

Exercise 17. ^Effect of Too Much Organic Matter on Ki.se of Water 46 

Exercise 18. — Percolation of ^^■ater Through Soils 48 

Exercise 19. — Clod Formation 51 

Exercise 20. — ^Soil Surface and Percolation 53 

Exercise 21. — -Capacity of Loo.se and Compact Soils to Hold Water 55 

Exercise 22. — -Effect of Evaporation on Soil Temi)crature 58 

Exercise 23.— Value of Mulches in the Retention of Moisture 60 

Exercise 24. — Oi)timum and Critical Moisture 63 

Exercise 25. — Drainage and Soil Temperature 66 

Exercise 26. — Color and Temperature 68 

Exercise 27. — Soil Ventilation 71 

Exercise 28. — Amount of Organic Matter in Soils 74 

Exercise 29. — Absor])tion of Plant Food by Soils 76 

Exercise 30. — Testing Soils for Acidity 78 

Exercise 31. — Examination of Chemical Fertilizers 80 

Exercise 32. — Study of Plowing 82 

Exercise 33. — Examination and Discussion of Tillage Machinerv^ 85 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



FIG. PAGE 

1. Soil Auger 16 

2. King Type ok Soil Sampling Machine 16 

3. Bin for Storing Soils 18 

4. Pint Tin Cans for Use in Taking Soil Samples IS 

o. Soil Sampling Tube 23 

6. Twelve-inch Tube, with Solid Bottom 23 

7. An Accurate Scale 26 

8. Drying Oven 42 

9. Moisture-proof Chamber 42 

10. Handy Equipment to Show Rise of Water by Capillarity 44 

11. Frame and Glass Tubes for Showing Capillary" Rise of Water in Dif- 

ferent Soils 44 

12. Galvanized Tray or Tank 44 

13. Percolation Soil Tube 48 

14. Support Block for Use in Holding Titbes 48 

15. Another Simple Form of Apparatus to Show Percolation of ^^'ATER 

through Soils 48 

16. Common Soil Tube 53 

17. A Good Form of Cylinder for Mulch Experiments 60 

IS. Preparing Himself for a Soil Plowing Contest S2 

19. Sod Plow Which Does Not Pulverize the Soil Very Much 83 

20. Stubble Plow 84 

21. General Purpose Plow 84 



SOILS LABORATORY MANUAL 
AND NOTE BOOK 

INSTRUCTIONS CONCERNING LABORATORY WORK IN SOILS 

1. Students will be expected to l)e in the laboratory and ready for work 
at the appointed time for the period to liegin. 

2. A schedule will l)e found in the laboratory indicating the exercise for 
each student or group of students to i)erform for eacli period. 

3. Students will be held responsible for the breakage of all apparatus. 

4. Experiments should be carefull.y labelled with th(^ o\\Tier's name and 
set away before leaving tlie laboratory. 

5. Some of the experiments recjuire a small amount of daily attention. 
This must l)e given in all cases and crcMlit will be allowed. 

6. Experiments shoukl be completed promptly and when finished the 
apparatus should be cleaned as ciuickjy as i:)ossible. 

7. Each experiment must be wi-itten up promptly after the time that it 
is completed. 

8. All tiuestions should l)e clearly and fully answered in tlie note Ijook. 
The report for two experiments should never be confused — let each l)e com- 
plete in itself. Note books will l)e graded on correctness of the results of 
the experiments, tlie way in which the experiment is written up, and the 
neatness of the work. 

9. Before commencing an exercise, read over tlie oI)ject and directions 
very carefully. Be sure that you understand clearly what is to be done before 
you commence work, 

10. The following list of reference books, along with the text-books in 
use by the students should be consulted in writing up the results of the 
exercises. If possible, they should be on a special shelf in the library. 



(12) INSTRUCTIONS CONCERNING LABORATORY WORK IN SOILS (Con.) 

REFERENCE BOOKS 

Soils Fletcher. 

The Soil Hall. 

Agriculture, Vol. I Brooks. 

goilg ■. . . . Burkett. 

Soils Hilgard. 

Physics of Agriculture King. 

Soil Management King. 

Farmers of Forty Centuries King. 

Rocks, Rock Weathering and Soil Formation. . .Merrill. 

Rocks and Soils Stockbridge. 

Physical Properties of Soil Warington. 

The Fertihty of the Land Roberts. 

Irrigation Farming Wilco.x. 

Soil Culture Manual Campbell. 

Dry Farming Widtsoe. 

Engineering for Land Drainage Elliot. 

Fertilizers and Crops VanSlyke. 

Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture Hopkins. 

Soils Lyon and Fippin. 

Bacteria in Relation to Country Life Lipman. 

Soils of the United States Bulletin 96, U. S. 

Bureau of Soils. 

''If a man can write a better book, preach a better sermon, or make a 
better mousetrap than his neighbor, though he l)uild his house in the woods, 
the world will make a beaten track to his door." 



Grade 
Date. 



EXERCISE 1 (13) 



Field Study of Processes of Soil Formation 

PLAN 

A. Examine a sample of soil and name all of the materials of which it is 

composed. How much organic matter is there in this soil? Show clearly 
how this organic matter has been formed. Compare its age with that 
of the inorganic matter. 

B. Stud.y the work of the various soil-forming agencies which you find and 

discuss clearly and fully the part which each of these different actions 
plays in the formation of the soil. 

1. Moving Ice. — Look for deep scratches on the solid rock which forms a 

part of the earth's crust. What is a glacier? How did it act in the 
formation of soils in New York? 

2. Moving Water. — Examine the l^anks of a brook and find where the land 

has been built up on one side and cut away on another. Explain the 
smoothness and roundness of the stones and other material in the bed 
of the l)rook. What effect has size upon the way in which the material 
is deposited? Walk along the l^ase of a steep hillside and note the effect 
of water in bringing down soil. Is this action beneficial or injurious? 
Why? How does a water-formed soil differ from that formed by ice? 
How does the water grade the soil according to the size of particles? 

3. Chemical Action of Air and Water; Weathering. — Why do some rocks seem 

to crum]:)le easier than others? Examine an old stone wall. Do the rocks 
rest as securely as they did when they were first laid? What has caused 
certain rocks to crack open? 

4. Changes in Temperature. — Show clearly how the forces of heat and cold 

may cause rocks to cruml^le. 

5. Action of Living Plaids and Animals. — Look for lichens growing upon 

rocks. What is the condition of the rock underneath and how do these 
plants act as soil builders? Look for the roots of trees growing between 
rocks. Discuss. Do you find small roots of plants between layers of 
rock? Look for the work of earthworms, also other animals. 

6. Effects of Organic Matter. — Examine^ a piece of iron which has been in a 

manure heap or a pile of decaying organic matter. Explain the action. 
Examine a swamp and note how it has filled up. How is muck formed? 

7. Winds. — Find some soil transported by winds. Is such action l)eneficial 

or injurious at the present time? Give two different kinds of soil which 
are formed by the wind and state their location, composition, and agri- 
cultural value. 

C. Examine surface soil and sul)soil. How do they differ? Describe each 

carefully. 

D. If possil)le, examine the soil of an old pasture which has never been 

plowed. Is the dark-colored surface soil as deep here as on land which 
has been cultivated for several years? Why? 



(14) EXERCISE 1 (Continued) 

Notes and Report of the Study 



EXERCISE 1 (Contintxed) (15) 

Notes and Report of the Study (Continued) 



Grade. 
Date. . 



(16) 



EXERCISE 2 



Taking Soil Samples 



Purpose. — To show students several methods of taking true samples of field 
soils. 

PLAN 

1. Dig a hole with a spade to the depth of one foot (more or less if desired). 
Place a folded newspaper or piece of oilcloth to form a pocket in the 
bottom of the hole. Then with the spade shave off a uniform slice of 
soil from top to bottom of one side of the hole. This slice should be 
caught in the paper as it crumbles and should be saved as the sample. 
If it is desired to test the soil for moisture content, sample should be 




Fig. 1. — Soil auger for obtaining soil samples at different depths. The bit should be about 114 inches 
in diameter. This auger may be had in short sections for ease in carrying when travelling considerable 
distances . 




Fig. 2. — King type of .soil sampling machine. The opening just back of the steel cutting edge is smaller 
inside and the cylinder larger than the rest of the tube. This makes the tube more easily removed from the 
soil, and the core of soil is removed from the tube by inverting it. The steel shown at the left is placed in 
the tube and may receive the blows of a hammer. 

placed promptly in a wide-mouthed bottle or jar. It should be sealed to 
prevent the escape of moisture. 

2. A common way of taking soil samples where great depth is necessary is 

to use a common auger, having an extra long shaft — the bit may be 
from one to two inches in diameter. Special soil augers are made for 
this purpose (Fig. 1). 

3. Soil sampling cylinders are also used for taking field samples (Fig. 2). 

They are made of heavy iron or steel tubing, sharpened at one end. Just 
back of the sharp edge the opening is slightly constricted to compress 
the core of soil so that it may be more easily removed from the tube. 
The tul^e may be driven into the soil ])y the use of a sledge hammer or axe. 



EXERCISE 2 (Continued) (17) 

QUESTIONS 

1. For what purpose should field samples ever be taken by farmers? 

2. Can you devise a method of taking field samples easily where the soil is 

stony or gravelly? 

3. What may be learned regarding the character of soil while the sample is 

being taken? 

Note. — All samples shoukl be properly labelled to show from where they were taken, 
when, and to what depth. 

4. Why is it necessary to take samples from the subsoil as well as the surface 

soil? 

5. Does soil analysis furnish complete Imowledge as to the productiveness 

of the soil? Why? 



Grade. 
Date. . 



(18) 



EXERCISE 3 



Study of Soil Grains 



Purpose. — To become familiar with the composition, color, size and the 
individual particles in a soil and to see clearly the difference between 
various types of soils. 





Fig. 3. — A suitable form of bin for 
storing .soils in school and college 
laboratories. 



Fig 4. — Pint tin cans are suitable 
for use in taking soil samples. The 
moisture may be held b.v tightly fit- 
ting covers. 



PLAN 



1. Obtain from the field or from soil supplies in the laboratory, samples of 

the following soils: sand, sandy loam, loam, clay and muck (Figs. 3 
and 4). 

2. Examine these soils with reference to the following points and record 

results in the table. 
When dry: (a) color, (6)odor, (c) fineness or texture — coarse, medium or 

fine. 
When moist: (a) color, (b) odor, (c) crumbly or plastic. 



''Adapted from Department of Soil Teclmology, Cornell University. 



EXERCISE 3 (Coxtinued) 
Phijsical Properties of Soils 



(19) 



Soil 




Color 




Odor 


Texture 


Condition 




Dry 


Wet 


Dry 


Wet 


Dry 


Wet 


Sand 






1 


Sandy loam 








Loam 1 








Clay 1 














Muck 















3. Examine under the higli or low power microscope, samples of fine gravel, 
coarse sand, medium sand, fine sand, very fine sand, silt, and clay, 
sandy loam and muck. Make drawings of each showing how thej' differ 
in shape and relative size. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How do the particles in each of the samples differ in color? 

2. Name the first seven according to relative size, stating their diameter in 

inches. 

3. Compare them with the sample of sandy loam. 

4. How does the muck differ from the others in texture and general appear- 

ance? 



Grade. 
Date. . 



(20) 



EXERCISE 4 



Composition of Soils 



Purpose. — To determine the composition of soils by the sedimentation 
method. 

PLAN * 

For this work, samples of at least three widely different soil tj-pes common 
in the localitj^ should be examined. 

1. Place about 10 cc. of the soil to be studied in a dry 100 cc. glass graduate. 

2. Fill two-thirds full with water and shake vigorously at intervals for ten 

minutes. Allow to stand until the soil has settled. Then estimate as 
closely as possible the proportion of the different grades of gravel, sand, 
silt and clay which are present. 
Repeat this operation with the other samples. 





Com'posiiion of the Soil 






Kind of soil Organic 
matter 


Gravel 


Sand 


Silt 


Clay 


! 










1 




















1 1 
1 1 









3. Consult the soil survey bulletin (as directed by the instructor) for the 
results of a mechanical analysis of these soils. Then plot curves showing 
graphically their relative texture and the proportionate amount of the 
different groups of separates. Use the chart on page 78 of ''Soils" by 
Lyon and Fippin as a guide. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is a mechanical analysis of a soil? 

2. How does it differ from a chemical analysis? 

3. How do the mechanical analyses of soils made by the U. S. Department 

of Agriculture differ from the results of above exercise? 

*Adapted from "Laboratory Manual for Soil Physics" — M osier. 



EXERCISE 4 (Continued) 



(21) 



I 




I FINE 
GRAVEL 



2 COARSE 
SAND 



3 MEDIUM 
SAND 



4 FINE 
SAND 



5 VERY FINE 
SAND 



6 SILT 



7 CLAY 



Grade. 
Date. . 



(22) 



EXERCISE 5 



Soil Classification 

Purpose. — To enable the student to become familiar with a few common 
soil series and types. 

PLAN 

Describe each area of soil studied according to the following outline: 





1st area : 2nd area 


.3rd area 


Climate of the section 






Method of formation 






Source of material 






Topography 










Altitude 




Color of surface soil 







Color of subsoil 




Drainage 




Organic matter 




Lime content ! 


1 












Rock : amount, shape, kind 






Arrangement of matter .... 






Stratified 












Structure 






Texture 




Complete analysis '• 








Remarks 


i 








Name of soil 




! 









Grade. 
Date. . 



EXERCISE 6 



Volume-weight or Apparent Specific Gravity 



(23) 



Fig. 5. — fcioil sam- 
pling tube for taking a 
sample of surface soil 
m undisturbed con- 



of sou 
condition. 



Purpose. — To compare the weight of a tube of soil with the weight of a 
tube of water filled to exactly the same height. This result will give 
the apparent specific gravity of the soil or the weight of soil compared 
with an equal volume of water. If desired the sample may l)e taken 
with a tube shown in Fig. 5. 

PLAN 

1. Take one of the special tulles which has the opening at the l)ottom plugged 

with a cork stopper and from which the brass strainer has been removed ; 
or use a tube with solid liottom as 
in Fig. 6. (Schools not equipped 
with soil tubes may use tin cans.) 

2. Be sure that the tube is dry. Then 

weigh it carefully on the balances. 

3. Fill the tube with sand to within one 

inch of the top, pouring it in loosely. 
Weigh carefully on the balances. 

4. Empty the soil back into the right 

bin and fill the tube again, but this 
time compact the soil in the com- 
pacting machine. If no compacting 
machine is available, pack the soil 
by dropping the tube from the 
height of five inches five times upon 
a book. 

5. Repeat this operation for all of the ciition— useful in deter- 

•■■ ^ mining the volume 

five soils, recording the weights in "Hi^^^ 

' *= ° held cc 

the tal)le. 

6. Finally fill the tube with water to exactly one inch from the top and weigli 

carefully. 

7. If the real specific gravity of these soils is known secure them from the 

instructor and then compute the porosity of each. See (3) below. 

8. The following formulas may be followed in working out the calculations: 

Volume-weight = Weight of a tube full of soil (1) 

A i. o -c r^ ., Weight of Soil ,^. 

Apparent Specific Gravity = ^^. ;„, ., „c-nr :,4-~ (2) 



Fig. G. — Twelve-inch 
tube with solid bottom, 
for use in determining 
volume-weight and 
pore space. 



p=ioo-(t^|P^xioo) 

\Ab. Sp. Gr. / 



Weight of Water 



(3) 



(24) 



EXERCISE 6 (Continued) 
Apparent Specific Gravity 





Wt. soil+tube 


Wt. 


tube 


Wt. soil 


Ap. sp. gr. 


Porosity 


Soil 


Com- 
pact 


Loose 


Com- 
pact 


Loose 


Corn- Loose 
pact 


Com- 
pact 


Loose 


Com- 
pact 


Loose 


Sand 




















Sandy loam .... 
















1 




Loam . 
















i 




Clay 






















Muck 





















Weight of equal volume of water_ 



QUESTIONS 

1. From the result secured calculate the weight per cubic foot of each of 

the soils. 

2. Finally calculate the weight per acre foot, 

3. What is meant by the volume-weight of soil? 

4. Give a definition of specific gravity. 

5. What is the difference between apparent specific gravity and real specific 

gravity? 

6. What is meant by porosity? 

7. What is the porosity of the average soil? 

8. State clearly the necessity for pore space in soil. 

9. What influence has (a) organic matter, (6) texture, (c) structure upon 

the porosity of a soil? Upon the weight of a soil? Why? 

10. Which is heavier, a coarse or a fine soil? Why? 

11. What does this exercise show concerning the comparative weight and 

apparent specific gravity of land recently plowed and land unplowed? 



EXERCISE 6 (Continued) (25) 



Grade. 
Date. . 



(26) 



EXERCISE 7 



True Specific Gravity 
Purpose. — To determine the real specific gravity of any sample of soil. 



PLAN 



1. Fill a specific gravity liottle with distilled water and weigh it (Fig. 7). 
Pour out part of it and add ten grams of oven-dry soil. Heat the content 




Fig. 7. — An accurate scale with agate bfM.'iiig ia a valuable part of the equipment for studying agricultural 

soils. 

slightly to drive out any air adhering to the soil. Now refill the bottle 
with distilled water and weigh again. 
2. Divide the loss in weight of water into the weight of soil to find the specific 
gravity. Record the results in the following table. 

Specific Gravity of Soil Grains 



Kind of soil 


\Vt. bottle and water Soil, bottle water 


Water displaced 


Specific gravity 




























j 






i . 1 





Note. — Students should, if possible, compare the real specific gravity of sand, clay, 
humus soil and others. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What precaution should you take in the careful performance of this 

exercise? 

2. Why are specific gravity bottles provided with glass stoppers having small 

openings? 



EXERCISE 7 (Continued) (27) 

3. Give a definition of true specific gravity. 

4. Of what value to the farmer is a knowledge of the specific gravity of liis 

soil? Would it indicate anything regarding the amount of humus or 
the amount of sand? 

5. Name the four principal minerals from which soil has been derived. State 

and discuss their specific gravities. 

6. What is the average specific gravity of soil grains? 

7. Look up the specific gravities of sand, silt, and clay and discuss them. 



Grade. 
Date. . 



(28) 



EXERCISE 8 



Heavy and Light Soils 
Purpose. — To find why certain soils are called "heavy" and others "light." 

PLAN 

1. Fill a soil tube or 'tin can with dry sand, pack well, refill, strike off with 

straight edge and weigh. Empty the vessel and weigh it while empty. 
Record results in the following table. 

2. In like manner determine the weights of the same volume of several other 

soils, such as black humus soil, heavj^ clay, and medium loam. 



Kind of soil 


Wt. tube 


Wt. soil and tube Wt. soil only 






\ 




i 









QUESTIONS 

1. Arrange the soils in the order of their actual weights. 

2. Why does the farmer call clay soils heavy soils? 

3. Are the so-called heavy soils really as heavy as sandy soils? 

4. Why are sandy soils spoken of as light soils? 

5. Would humus added to heavy soils make them plow easily? 

6. What effect would sand have on clay soils in this regard? 



EXERCISE 8 (Continued) (29) 



Grade. 
Date. . 



(30) 



EXERCISE 9 



Effects of Organic Matter 
Purpose. — To study the effects of organic matter in soils. 



PLAN 



1. 



Secure directions from the instructor in charge as to where the samples 
of soil shall be taken, — one from a plot rather free from organic matter, 
the other from sod land or soil otherwise rich in organic matter. 

2. Take steel cylinder (Fig. 5), a heavy block of wood and an axe or hammer. 

Select a place as free from stones as possible in the cultivated ground. 
Carefully drive cylinder into the earth to a depth of seven inches. Dig 
out around it with a spade and remove. Transfer the soil from within 
the cylinder to an oilcloth or paper and from there to a glass jar. (In 
lieu of the cylinder method, samples may be taken with a spade. Equal 
volumes may be compared by measurement in tubes or cans filled and 
packed equally.) 

3. Repeat the same process in the sod land. 

4. Bring the samples of soil to the laboratory and weigh each carefully. 

5. Weigh out 100 grams of each soil and determine the amount of capillary 

water in each. 
Make the following calculations, using the entire samples, or equal volumes 
of each. 



6. 



Soil 


Part of acre Lbs. of soil 


Weight of 
furrow slice 


Apparent 
sp. gr. 


Per cent, of 
capillary water 


Cultivated 


1 1 








Sod 









QUESTIONS 

1. Describe the color and physical appearance of the two soils. 

2. Which weighs the more and why? 

3. Which do you think would retain the more water? 

4. Wliich soil has the greater apparent specific gravity? Why? 

5. Which soil has the greater porosity? Why? 

G. Which soil would the farmer consider the more productive? 
7. State clearly the influence of constant tillage upon the organic matter in 
the soil. 



EXERCISE 9 (Continued) (31) 



Grade. 
Date. . 



(32) EXERCISE 10 

Other Effects of Organic Matter 

Purpose. — To study the effects of manure and organic matter on the water- 
holding capacity of the soil. 

PLAN 

Use the following soils: (1) sand; (2) sand with 10 per cent well-rotted 
manure; (3) sandy loam; (4) sandy loam with 10 per cent well-rotted 
manure; (5) muck; (6) sand v/ith 40 per cent muck. 

1. Take six glass or metal percolators (Fig. 13) and in the bottom of each 

place a small piece of folded filter paper. If necessary moisten the filter 
paper in order that it may cover the bottom opening well. 

2. In percolator No. 1 place 500 grams of sand. 

3. Weigh out 450 grams of sand and mix thoroughly with 50 grams of well- 

rotted manure. Place in percolator No. 2. 

4. Place 500 grams of sandy loam in No. 3. 

5. With 450 grams of sandy loam thoroughly mix 50 grams of manure and 

place in No. 4. 

6. In percolator No. 5 place 500 grams of muck. 

7. For percolator No. 6 thoroughly mix 300 grams of sand and 200 grams 

of muck. 

8. Make the soil compact by allov/ing each percolator to drop six times 

upon a book from the height of two inches. Be careful to treat each the 
same. 

9. Set glasses underneath each percolator and then add slowly to each 

sample 400 cc. of water, 

10. When percolation has ceased measure carefully the amount of water 

which has come through. Subtract this amount from the amount of 
water which was added. This will give the amount of water held by the 
soil. 

11. Record results in the following table. 



EXERCISE 10 (Continued) (33) 

Reiodis 



Kind of soil Grams of water Tons of water held bv 

held by soil aore 7 in- 


Sand 


Sand with 10 per cent manure . . . 


Sandy loam 


Sandy loam with 10 jjer cent manure 


Muck . 






Sand with 10 per cent muck . . 





12. Compute in tons the amount of water held by each mixture for an acre 
furrow slice, assuming such an amount to weigh 2,000,000 pounds. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the effect of organic matter upon the structure of the soil and 

upon its ability to retain moisture? 

2. Why is some of the water which percolated through of a straw color? 

3. What does this water contain and what harmful farm practice does it 

suggest? 

4. How much manure should be applied per acre? 

5. Which is the better farm practice, to apply 10 tons of manure per acre 

every 4 years or 20 tons every 8 years? 

6. Give five distinct benefits from the use of manure. 

7. Why is manure beneficial on muck land? 

8. State clearly the best method of handling muck for the purpose of improv- 

ing a sandy soil. (Brook's Agriculture, Vol. 1, pp. 90, 91.) 

9. How do manure and muck differ in their power to improve the soil? 



Grade. 
Date. . 



(34) EXERCISE 11 

Influence of Weathering, Organic Matter, Sand and Lime on 

A Clay Soil 

Purpose. — To determine best system of management for a clay soil. 

PLAN * 

1. Take five of the shallow square pans and weigh into each 400 grams of 

pulverized clay. 

2. To pan No. 3 add 100 grs. of muck and mix thoroughly with the clay. 

3. To pan No. 4 add ten grs. of lime and mix thoroughly. 

4. To pan No. 5 add 10 grams of sand and mix. 

5. Leave pans 1 and 2 without addition. 

6. Add water slowly and mix each with a steel spatula to a stiff puddled 

condition. Be very careful not to add too much water. 

7. Take pan No. 1, which contains pure clay, and scratch with a knife blade 

to a depth of one-eighth of an inch one-third of the surface, arranging 
the scarifications one-fourth of an inch apart in both directions. 

8. On a cold night set the untreated pan No. 2 out-doors and allow it to 

freeze solid in its wet state, 

9. Set the other four pans away and allow them to dry out thoroughly. 
10. Later examine the pans and answer the following questions. 

questions 

1. State the effect of muck, lime, sand and organic matter on the hardness 

of a clay soil. Discuss. 

2. Does the sand appear to have improved the tilth of the clay soil? Would 

it be profitable farm practice to apply sand to a clay soil? Why? 

3. Does freezing tend to mellow and crumble a puddled clay soil? What 

does this indicate as to the time of plowing? 

4. How are the ice crystals formed? 

5. What influence do the checks have on the structure of the soil? 

6. From the results of this experiment outline a system of management for 

a heavy clay soil. 

7. How do commercial fertilizers compare with manure in improving a clay 

soil? 

8. What form of lime would give the quickest results on a clay soil? (See 

next exercise). 

9. How many pounds would you use per acre? How should it be applied? 

* Adapted from Department of Soil Teclmology, Cornell University. 



EXERCISE 11 (Continued) (35) 



Grade. 
Date. . 



(36) EXERCISE 12 

Effect of Lime and Other Chemicals on a Clay Soil 
Purpose. — To show that some chemical materials cause the soil to become 
more mellow and to crumble more easily, while other materials have 
the opposite effect. 
Flocculation is the collecting together of very fine particles into clots or 
granules. 

plan 

1. Powder thoroughly in a mortar four ten-gram samples of clay soil and 

place in glass bottles. 

2. Fill the bottles about two-thirds full of water. 

3. Leave the first untreated Ijut add chemicals to the other three bottles 

according to the following table. Pour some of the solution into a beaker 
and then measure the exact amount with a graduate. 

4. What difference do you notice- in the appearance of the solutions in the 

four l^ottles? 

5. Examine some of the material from each bottle under a microscope and 

make observations. 

6. Allow bottles to stand and note time required for the particles to settle. 

Clean carefully the beaker and graduate after each solution is used. 

Results 



Kind of treatment 


Appearance after }2 hour 


Time required to settle 


No treatment 










20 cc. of lime water 






20 cc. of acid phosphate 






20 cc. of nitrate of soda 






1 



QUESTIONS 

L What material did you find most effective in producing flocculation? 

2. How is a clay soil benefited if its particles are brought together in flakes? 

3. What form of lime would act the quickest on a clay soil? 

4. What form of lime might be more satisfactory on a sandy soil ? 

5. How much should be used per acre on a sandy soil and how much on a 

clay soil? 

6. Under what conditions would lime benefit a sandy soil? 

7. Discuss the action of acid phosphate on the soil. Does it cause soils to 

become acid? How? 

8. What effect has the continuous use of nitrate of soda uix)n soil structure? 



EXERCISE 12 (Continued) (37) 



Grade. 
Date. . 



(38) 



EXERCISE 13 



Total Moisture Determination 



Purpose. — To determine the total moisture content of field samples of 
different soils. 

PLAN 

1. Take four pint jars with tight-fitting tops. Secure, either from the field 

or greenhouse, according to directions from the instructor, moist samples 
of the following soils — sand, loam, clay, and muck. Bring to the lab- 
oratory. 

2. Secure four round evaporating dishes and after numbering determine their 

weight. Next weigh into each a fifty -gram sample of the soil the moisture 
.content of which is to be determined. 

3. Place the samples in a drying oven the temperature of which is slightly 

above the boiling point of water and allow to remain for twelve hours. 
Later remove to a dry chamber and allow to cool. Weigh as quickly as 
possible. Then return to the oven and heat again and reweigh in order 
to be sure that all moisture has been driven off. 

4. Determine the total moisture by dividing the weight of moisture by 

weight of dry soil. 
Several samples of soil taken the same day from different fields will enable 

the student to determine the relative water-holding capacity. 
In making the calculations net weights only must be used. Eliminate the 
• weight of dish in each case. 







Total Moisture 








Weight 
of dish 


Total water 


Dry weight of 
dish and soil 


Dry weight of 
soil 


Per eent of 

moisture 


Soil 


Weight 
of soil 


Weight of 
dish and sol! 


Sand 








1 




Loam ... 










Clay j 








Muck 











EXERCISE 13 (Continued) (39) 

QUESTIONS 

1. Make a drawing illustrating the availal)ility to plants of the three kinds 

of water found in field soils. 

2. State two ways in which soil moisture is lost. 

3. What proportion of soil water is probably lost l)y percolation? 

4. State the methods which may be used to prevent the loss of water. 



Grade. 
Date. . 



(40) 



EXERCISE 14 



Capillary Moisture 



Purpose. — The determination of capillary moisture in samples of field soil. 

Capillary moisture is that water which is held in the soil by surface tension 
of the soil particles. If soil is exposed to the air it can be entirely evapo- 
rated at room temperature. 

PLAN 

1. Take four pint jars with tight-fitting tops. Secure, either from the field 

or greenhouse, according to directions from the instructor, moist samples 
of the following soils : sand, sandy loam, clay, and muck. Bring to the 
classroom and, using the square soil pans, determine the moisture content 
of the soil, as follows: 

2. Label with a wax pencil and weigh on the balances the empty pan. Then 

immediately weigh into it 100 grams of the moist soil as quickly as 
possible. 

3. Do the same with the other soils. 

4. Set the pans away carefully and weigh every few days until a nearly 

constant weight is reached. 

5. At the completion of the experiment carefully preserve these soils and 

determine the amount of hygroscopic moisture in them according to 
directions as given in the following experiment. 
The amount of capillary moisture which has disappeared into the air is indi- 
cated by the loss in weight. Calculate the percentage of capillary water, 
using the dry soil for the base. 







Capillary Mov 


'hire 








Weight of Weight, pan 
pan j and soil 


Dry weight 


Dry weight, 
soil only 


Loss in 
weight 


Per cent cap- 
illary water 


Sand 












Sandy loam 




1 






Loam 


1 


1 




Clay 


1 




Muck 













EXERCISE 14 (Continued) (41) 



QUESTIONS 



1. Of what use is capillary water for plant growth? 

2. Which soil holds the most capillary water, and why? 

3. Where does the supply of capillary moisture come from? 

4. How does it reach the surface of the soil and how is it lost? 



Grade. 
Date. . 



(42) 



Purpose. 

soils. 



EXERCISE 15 

Hygroscopic Moisture 
-To determine tlie percentage of hygroscopic moisture in air dry 

PLAN 



Number and weigh five evaporating dishes. 

Into the above dishes weigh 25 grams of each of the five soils remaining 
from the exercise for the determination of the capillary moisture. 





Fig. S. — Di\ing oven with top tubes for thermom- 
eter and gas regulator. 



Fig. 9. — Moisture-proof 
chamber for use in cooling 
oven-dried samples before 
weighing. Moisture-ab- 
sorbing chemicals, as strong 
sulfuric acid, may be 
placed in the lower part to 
insure dryness. 



3. Dry these samples in an oven (Fig. 8) which has a temperature slightly 

above the boiling point of water. 

4. Later cover the dishes and remove from the oven and allow to cool in a 

dry chamber (Fig. 9). 

5. Weigh rapidly and determine the loss of moisture. 

6. Determine the per cent of hygroscopic moisture by dividing the weight 

of moisture lost by the weight of oven dry soil. 
If possible the degree of humidity of the air in the room should be found on 
the day this exercise is conducted. If desired this exercise may be 
repeated on very dry and very wet days to determine the variation in 
amount of hygroscopic moisture. 



EXERCISE 15 (Continued) 
Amount of Hygroscopic Moisture 



(43) 





Weight of 
dish 


Weight, (lisli 
and soil 


Dry weight 


Dry soil only 


Loss in 
weight 


Per cent 
hygr., water 


Sand 






I 




Sandy loam 




i 






Loam 










Clay 






i ' i 


Muck 











QUESTIONS 

1. Give a definition of hj^groscopic moisture. 

2. What three factors govern the amount of hygroscopic moisture in the soil? 

3. State two possible ways by which this kind of moisture may be beneficial. 



Grade. 
Date. . 



(44) 



EXERCISE 16 



Capillary Rise of Water in Soils of Different Texture 
Purpose. — To determine the influence of the fineness of a soil upon the 
speed and total rise of capillary water. 

plan 
1 . Close the ends of the large glass tubes (Fig. 11) by means of pieces of muslin 
firmly tied on. 




Fig. 10. — Handy equipnient to show rise 
of water by capillarity. 




Fig. 11. — Frame and glass tubes for showing capil- 
lary rise of water in different soils. 




Fig. 12. — Galvanized tray or tank to he used with the support for tubes in showing capillary rise of water. 

Also useful for e.xercise No. 17 

2. Hold the tubes in a vertical position and carefully fill with their respective 

soils. After filling compact the soil by allowing the tubes to drop from 
a distance of four inches four times upon a book. 

3. Place the tubes in a supporting frame (Fig. 11) over a rectangular pan of 

water, so that the ends are about one-half inch below the surface of the 
water (Fig. 12). 
This experiment may be set up by the instructor but each student must fill 
out the following observation blank for himself as nearly at the time 
indicated as possible. 



EXERCISE 16 (Continued) 
Rise of Water at Different Periods 



(45) 



Soil H hour 


1 hour 1 3 houra 


1 day 


2 days 


4 days 


6 days 


8 days 


1 












2 1 












3 ' 
















4 
















5 
















G 

















QUESTIONS 

1. In what soil does the water rise the fastest? The highest? 

2. Can you determine upon w4iat factors the capillary rise of water depends? 

Give several. 

3. Would a moist condition of the soil affect the total rise? Would it 

affect the rate? 

4. Does capillary movement of water take place laterally? In a test of differ- 

ent fertilizers on field plots side by side, what effect would this have? 

5. What does this experiment teach you concerning soil management and 

plant growth? / 



Grade. 
Date. . 



(46) EXERCISE 17 

Effect of Too Much Organic jMatter on Rise of Water 
The water used by plants is conveyed to them largely by means of the process 

called capillarity. 
Purpose. — To show that certain farm practices may be harmful, cutting off 

the water supply to plant roots by a layer of organic matter, 

PLAN * 

1. Tie a cloth firmly over the ends of two large glass tubes 18 inches long. 

Fill to the height of one foot with fine soil, compacted by letting the tube 
drop four times on a book for a distance of 6 inches for every 6 inches 
of soil put in the tube. 

2. In one tube put about one inch of cut straw or sawdust; in the other about 

a half inch of well decayed fine manure. Finish filling the tubes with 
soil. Place the ends of the tubes in a tra}^ of water and note the rise of 
water. 

3. In this exercise each student must make daily observations on the heights 

of the water in the tubes and note the effect of organic matter on the 
rise of water. 

ResuUs 



i 


Height of water 


Soil with fine manure 








Soil with cut straw : 





QUESTIONS 

1. In which soil does the water rise the higher and why? 

2. What is the effect of plowing under poorly rotted manure, straw, or a 

heavy gi-een crop in the spring? 

3. What damage to the ensuing crop might result if a heavy sod were plowed 

under late in the spring? 

4. Would there be any advantage in rolling the land directly after plowing? 

5. What advantage with relation to organic matter does fall plowing have? 



*Adapted from Mosier. 



EXERCISE 17 (Continued) (47) 



Grade. 
Date. . 



(48) 



EXERCISE 18 



Percolation of Water Through Soils 



Percolation is the passage of water through soils by means of the natural 

channels. 
Purpose. — To study the influence of texture and structure upon the passage 

of water through soils. 



PLAN 



1. Take six soil tubes (Fig. 13): fill three of them with the three different 
soils to within one-half inch of the overflow pipe, pouring it in loosely. 




Fig. 14. — Suppurt block for use in holding tubes with drainage outlets. 



Fig. 13. — Percolation 
soil tube. In comparing 
the percolation of water 
through several soils 
the tubes are placed in 
the support block (Fig. 
14) and are connected 
by rubber tubing at- 
tached to the lateral in- 
lets. A beaker is placed 
under each drainage 
tube. 




Fig. 15. — Another simple form of apparatus to show percolation of 
water tlirough soils. 



2. Fill the other three tubes with their respective soils, packing in the usual 

way by dropping or by using the compacting machine. 

3. After all the tubes are full place a layer of coarse sand one-half inch deep 

over the top of each. This will prevent the water as it flows from dis- 
turbing the soil below. 



EXERCISE 18 (Continued) 



(49) 



4. After placing the tubes in tlie support block (Fig. 14) connect the tubes 

at the top with rubber tubing and place beaker glasses underneath them 
to catch the water which comes through. 

5. Record the time elapsing after water is turned on until it begins to perco- 

late through each tube of soil. 

6. Determine the quantitj^ of water draining through each soil in thirty 

minutes after it begins. 
Note. — This exercise could be tried with five soils as suggested in Fig. 15. 

Percolation of Water Through Soils 





Sand 


Loam 


Clay 




Loose ; Compact 


Loose 


Compact 


Loose 


Compact 


Minutes for percolation to begin , 








Amount of water percolating in 
30 minutes 









QUESTIONS 

1. Upon what two main factors does percolation depend? 

2. Would water percolate faster through soil which was dry at first or through 

wet soil? Why? 

3. What conditions in the soil assist percolation? 

4. Is a sandy soil objectionable when percolation is considered? 

5. What does this experiment indicate concerning the c^epth of plowing? 

6. Would growing crops be benefited by a loose condition of the surface 

soil? 

7. Would there be any advantage in fall plowing? Why? 

8. Why are clay soils often wet? 

9. What does this experiment indicate concerning the comparative depth 

at which tile drains should be put in a clay soil and in a sandy soil? 



(50) EXERCISE 18 (Continued) 



Grade 
Date. , 



EXERCISE 19 



(51) 



Clod Formation 
Purpose. — To study the clod-forming properties in soils of different kinds. 



PLAN 

1. Take small samples of each of the available soils of the region; include a 

sample of heavy clay soil; also include one mixture of sand with clay and 
one of humus and clay. 

2. On a mixing board mix each with enough water to make as stiff a "putty" 

as each sample will make. Roll part of it into the form of an inch marl^le, 
and another part into a half-inch cylinder about four inches long. 

3. Make up all the samples as nearly alike as possible. Ijabel each by stippling 

a number on each kind. Put the molded samples into cigar boxes or on 
shelves to dry for several days. 

4. Make studies of the relative breaking powers of these samples, and make 

a record of their clod-forming properties. 

Clod Fornwtion 



Kind of soil 


No- Crusliing strength 
of marbles 


Breaking strength 
of sticks 


Remarks 






1 










i 








1 




1 



Note. — If instruments are not available for measuring, crushing and breaking strength, 
comparisons may be made after breaking with fingers. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Make a list of the samples in order— the hardest clods first. 

2. What interest has the farmer in the clod-forming properties of field "soils? 

3. Which soils must be handled most carefully after rains? 

4. Which are likely to form hard crusts during dry w(>ather if improperly 

managed? 

5. Which soils will work up into the most perfect seed beds for gardens? 

6. Why should clay soils, if plowed rather wet, not be allowed to dry before 

harrowing? 

7. Give other points in the proper management of clod-forming soils. 



(52) EXERCISE 19 (Continued) 



Grade. 
Date. . 



EXERCISE 20 



Soil Surface and Percolation 



(53) 



Purpose. — To study the relationship between soil surface and the percolation 
of free water. 



PLAN 

Secure three or more small glass tubes of uniform length 
foot) and place them in a jar of water deep enough 
to fill them to the top. Place the finger or palm of 
the hand against the top of tlie tubes and with the 
other hand remove the bundle of tubes from the 
jar of water. Hold the bundle in a vertical position 
and note that the water remains in the tubes. Now 
remove the hand from the top and see how quickly 
the water descends. 

Fill two soil tul)es (Fig. 16) with clay loam, packing 
them alike. Set them in a jar of water until satu- 
rated. Loosen the surface of one with a kitchen fork; 
smooth the surface of the other with the bowl of a 
wet spoon to avoid the free entrance of air. Then set 
the tubes of soil so as to drain into beaker glasses. 
Compare the rates of drainage of free water from 
the two tubes as a result of the difference in treat- 
ment of the surfaces. 



(about one 




Fic. 



lt>. — Common 
soil tube, 2" x 12" with 
perforated bottom, use- 
ful in many exercises. 



Amount of \vat,er in 1 hour 



Surface smooth 



Surface stirred 



Amount of water in 2 days . 



QUESTIONS 

1. Why does the exclusion of air at the top of the tubes retard percolation? 

2. Does a heavy soil beaten by rain or puddled by free water standing on 

the surface tend to exclude the air? Explain. 

3. What treatment can be given to the surface of field soils after heavy rains 

before they are ciuite dry enough to plow well? 

4. Does a heavj^, thick, diy, crust tend to exclude air from the soil more than 

a loosened surface? Explain. 

5. Would harrowing tend to let the free water downward? Why? 



(54) EXERCISE 20 (Continued) 

6. When air is admitted to the soil in very early spring, what effect does it 

have upon the soil temperature? Explain. 

7. In early spring is it better to allow the surplus water to percolate downward 

into the soil or to wait for it to evaporate from the surface? Give reasons. 

8. If free water is caused to percolate below the depth of tillage in spring, 

what benefit may it have upon crops during subsequent dry weather? 



Grade. 
Date. . 



EXERCISE 21 (55) 

Capacity of Loose and Compact Soils to Hold Water 

Purpose.— To study the influence of the texture and structure of different 
soils upon their capacity to retain water. 

plan 

Use four soils — sand, loam, clay, and muck. 

1. Select eight soil cylinders (Fig. 16) and place a circular piece of filter 

paper in the bottom of each. Number and weigh ea{;ii cylinder carefully. 

2. Fill the first four tul)es to within exactly one inch of the top, pouring the 

soil in gently so that it will rest in the tube in a very loose condition. 

3. Fill the second lot of tubes to within one inch of the top and pack uniformly 

by the dropping method or l)y means of the compacting machine. 

4. Weigh and record weights of filled tul)es. 

5. Place the tubes in a galvanized iron tank and pour wat(n- around them 

until it reaches the height of the surface of the soil, thus allowing the 
water to percolate up through. 

6. Let stand until moisture appears at surface of soil in each cylinder, noting 

time reciuired for water to come up through. 

7. Finallj" remove the tuljes from the tank and, after wiping off all free water 

with a cloth, weigh immediately upon balances. 

8. Place cylinders in racks where the water may be allowed to percolate out, 

and cover top with a glass plate to prevent evaporation. 

9. Weigh the cylinders according to the time indicated in the table. 



(56) 



EXERCISE 21 (Continued) 
Water Holding Power of Soils 





Loose 


Compact 




Sand 


Loam 


Clay 


Muck 


Sand 


Loam 


Clay 


Muck 


Number of tube 












1 








Weight of tube 










i 












Weight, tube and soil 














t 


Weight of soil 












( 


Time for top to become moist 
















Depth, dry soil 
























Depth, wet soil 










' 


Moist weight, tube and soil . . . 












i 
1 




Weight of moist soil 


















Water taken up, grs 






















Water taken up, ]:)er cent .... 


















Grs. water lost, 1 hour 
















Grs. water lost, 2 days 


















Grs. water lost, 4 days 


















Grs. water lost, 6 days 








1 






Total water lost, grs 


i 




1 






Total water lost, per cent .... 








) 






Acre inches water retained .... 








t 







QUESTIONS 

1. When a soil is saturated does it contain both free water and capillary 

water? Give reasons for your answer. 

2. What per cent of water was found in each of the soils when saturated? 

3. What relation does this proportion bear to the pore space of the soil? 

4. What did you observe concerning the expansion of a muck soil when wet? 

W' hat does this show concerning the depths at which tile drains should 
be placed? 



EXERCISE 21 (Continued) (57) 

5. From the results secured, what type of soil would you say would be most 

benefited by cultivation? 

6. Which soils would leach most? 

7. What effect does rolling have upon soil moisture? 

8. What effect does fall plowing or early spring plowing have upon soil 

moisture? 

9. Define gravitational water. What are its uses and when is it injurious? 



Grade. 
Date. . 



(58) EXERCISE 22 

Effect of Evaporation on Soil Temperature 
Purpose. — To show that soils are cooled when w^ater evaporates from them. 

plan 

1. Take two dairy thermometers which agree in their reading. Tie a few 

inches of cloth around the bulb of one thermometer and suspend the 
lower part of the cloth in a glass of water that is slightly warmer than 
the room. 

2. From time to time note the difference in readings of the two thermometers, 

and decide how much difference is produced by evaporation of water 
from the cloth. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Show the analogy between this exercise and the evaporation of water from 

soils. 

2. Would soils be kept cold by water evaporating from them in the spring 

of the year? 

3. How many units of heat are absorbed or dissipated by the evaporation 

of one unit of water (see any text-book on physics). 

4. Why should farmers wishing to warm their soils in early spring, prevent 

the evaporation of w^ater from them? Would harrowing do this? 

5. If harrowing produces a dust mulch and checks evaporation, would the 

free water below the surface be held there or tend to find its way do^\^l- 
ward? 

6. Would the loosening of the surface crust of the soil tend to check down- 

ward percolation of soil water or increase it? 

7. Would the loosening of the soil crust increase or retard the entrance of 

warm spring air? 



EXERCISE 22 (Continued) (59) 



Grade. 
Date. . 



(60) 



EXERCISE 23 



Value of Mulches in the Retention of Moisture 
Purpose. — To determine the loss of water from the surface of a soil by 
evaporation and the value of various mulches in preventing this loss. 
A mulch is any material placed or created on 
the surface of a soil to prevent evapora- 
tion. It may be composed of loose soil 
or it may be artificial material, such as 
leaves, straw, etc. 

PLAN 

1. The cylinders (Fig. 17) will be filled with 

loam soil in a moist condition. 

2. Treat the surface of the soil in each tube 

according to the table. The artificial 
mulch should be 3 inches deep in all 
cases. Fill the outside jacket of the cyl- 

1 •,! ^ , , Fig. 17. — A good form of cylinder for 

mCler Wltn water. mulch experiments. Water may be added 

3. Weigh each cylinder daily and calculate f-- time to time by the side tube. 

the loss of water. Replace the water which has been lost by evap- 
oration. 

Value of Mulches 






Bare 
soil 


Coarse 
sand 


Clay 


Fine 
sand- 
loam' 


Cut 
straw 


Cultivated 




1 in. 
deep 


2 in. 3 in. 
deep deep 


4 in. 
deep 


Weight of tubes j 










1 






Loss, 1 day 










i 




Loss, 2 days 
















Loss, 3 days 










i 






Loss, 4 days 










! 






Loss, 5 days 


i 

1 












Loss, 6 days 














! 


Loss, 2 weeks 


















Total loss, tons, per 
acre, per week 



















EXERCISE 23 f Continued) (61) 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the average annual rainfall for the country in which you live? 

2. How many inches of water are used by a (a) 400 bushel crop of potatoes, 

(6) 100 bushels of corn, (c) 3.5 tons of hay? 

3. How many inches of water may be lost by evaporation from a l)are soil? 

4. Which artificial mulch is the most efficient and which is the least efficient? 

5. How does a mulch prevent loss of water by evaporation? 

6. Which is the more economical, a natural or an artificial mulch? 

7. Which mulch would need renewal the more often, clay or sandy loam, 

and why? 

8. Why should cultivation always be clone soon after a beating rain? 

9. What is the best depth for cultivation? Why? 

10. What effect will cultivation have on a very wet soil? 

11. What effect do 3^ou think mulches would have upon the temperature of 

a soil? 

12. What effect would scattering a light coating of manure upon meadows 

have upon the grass plants during hot, dry weather? 

13. What influence does rolling have upon the evaporation of water from 

soil? 

14. What can you say about the use of corrugated rollers? 



(62) EXERCISE 23 (CoNTiNUEiD) 



Grnde. 
Date. . 



EXERCISE 24 (63) 

Optimum and Critical Moisture 

Purpose. — To determine oi:)timum and critical moisture content and amount 

of available moisture in different soils. 
Optimum moisture content is that amount of water in the soil with which a 

plant is able to make its best growth. 
Critical moisture content is the minimum amount of water with which a plant 

is able to survive. 

PLAN 

1. Take five one-gallon glass l)attery jars (or tin cans) having a small hole 

close to the l^ottom. Into the hole fit a drain tube made of glass tubing 
with a glass-wool filter at the inner end, so that it will take liquid from 
the lowest place in the jar. 

2. Weigh each jar and record weight. 

3. Fill each jar to within one inch of the top with soil compacted to a moder- 

ate degree. Use the sand, sandy loam, loam, clay and muck. 

4. Pour the soil out and mix with w^ter until the soil is in the best possible 

field condition. Keep careful record of the amount of water added to 
each soil. 

5. Fill the jars with the moist soil and weigh. 

G. Plant five kernels of corn three-fourths of an inch deep in each jar. 

7. Cover the tops of the jars with oilcloth or waxed jjaper to prevent evapora- 

tion until the corn is up. 

8. Water them at intervals when necessary, adding enough water so that a 

drop or two will be forced out at the drain. Always add the same amount 
of water to each pot. 

9. When the corn is a foot high, cease watering and record the number of 

days before the plants commence to wilt. 
10, Then empty the pots and determine the amoimt of capillary moisture 
in each soil. 



(64) 



EXERCISE 24 (Continued) 
Optimum and Critical Moislure for Corn 





Sand 


Sandy 
loam 


Loam 


Clay 


Muck 


Weight of jar 




1 

! i 




Amount of water 


1 




Weight filled jar 






1 




Per cent of water 


1 i 






Amount of water added 
























Per cent of moisture in soil at wilting . . 













QUESTIONS 

1. Which of the soils has the largest amount of available moisture? 

2. Which soil will store up the largest amount of moisture? 

3. If each soil should have the same amount of water to commence with, on 

which would the crops wilt the quickest? 

4. What is the water content of green alfalfa, corn, turnips, and potatoes? 

Of straw, hay, ensilage, and shelled corn? 



EXERCISE 24 (Continued) (65) 



Grade. 
Date. . 



(66) 



EXERCISE 25 



DrxYinage and Soil Temperature 
Purpose. — To show the influence of standing water in a soil upon its tem- 
perature. 



PLAN 



1. Prepare two similar vessels — one water tight and the other with holes to 

allow of good drainage at the bottom; these may be two tubs or boxes. 
Fill them with the same kind of soil to a depth of six inches. 

2. Plant an equal number of grains of corn in each box. 

3. Sprinkle equal quantities of water upon each vessel until it l^egins to drain 

from the box with the perforated bottom. Repeat this as often as is 
necessary until the corn is well up. 

4. After ten or twelve days insert the thermometers and determine hourly 

the temperature of each at 1, 2 and 4 inches in depth. 

Res2(Us 



Time 


1 inch deep 


2 inclies deep 


4 inches deep 


Drained 


L'ndrained 


Drained j l'ndrained 


Drained L'ndrained 


9 o'clock. . ; 




11 o'clock 






i j 


1 o'clock 








3 o'clock . 








5 o'clock . • 







Date of recording thermometer readings. ....... 

No. of plants on drained soil On undrained soil 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why is there a difference in temperature? 

2. Why are clay soils often cold or colder than sandy soils? 

3. Why does corn often rot in the ground during a wet spring? 

4. Name some of the benefits of drainage to the farmer. 

5. What is the difference between natural drainage and artificial drainage? 

6. Why is the latter necessary and what is the most successful method of 

carrying it out? 



* Adapted from Mosier. 



EXERCISE 25 (Continued) (67) 



Grade. 
Date. 



(68) 



EXERCISE 26 



Color and Temperature 
Purpose. — To determine the effect of color of soil on temperature. 
The temperature of the soil influences indirectly the yield per acre. 

PLAN * 

1. Secure four wooden boxes approximately 12 inches square by eight inches 

deep. Bore holes in the bottom for proper drainage. Fill with a uniform 
lot of loam soil to within one-half inch of the top. 

2. Plant corn in one-half of one box at a uniform depth and a like number 

of kernels in the other half. 

3. Cover the one-half of the soil with chalk dust or white sand and the other 

with lamp black or very dark humus soil. Be careful that the depth of 
the seed is the same after these covers are put over the soil. 

4. In each of the other boxes plant equal numl^ers of wheat, beans and Ijuck- 

wheat. Use the same light and dark covering as in (3). 

5. Moisten all the soil equally from time to time. 

6. Place the boxes where the sun will reach all the soil surfaces equally. 

7. Record in the talkie the number of plants up, in each half box twice a day, 

Nutnher of Plants up Each Morning and Evening 



Number 
of days 


Light soil 


Dark Soil 


Corn Wheat 


Beans 


Buck- 
wheat 


Corn Wheat Beans 


Buck- 
wheat 


A. M 














P. M 


i 








i 





Select a clear day and make oljservations on the temperature of each half 
of one box. Insert a thermometer one-half inch, and another four 
inches deep, also place one two inches above the surface. Take readings 
every two hours and record in the temperature table. 

Each student should make observations on all plots and keep results in 
tabular form. 

*Adaf)ted from Mosier. 



EXERCISE 2G fCoxTixuED) (69) 

Record of Teuiperatnre — Thermometer Readings 



Yi inch in soil . 



4 inches in soil , 









Tem|)eratures 










Location 
of thermometer 


K- M. 


ll.\.M. 


1 p. M. 


3 


p. 


M. 


5 p. M. 


Light soil 

2 inches above .... 






L 










J/2 inch in soil 




4 inches in soil .... 










Dark soil 

2 inches above. . . . 

















QUESTIONS 

1. Explain why one soil is heated more than the other. 

2. What effect does organic matter have on the color of soil? Why? 

3. On which soil do the plants appear quickest? 

4. Which kind of plants show first? 

5. Give in their proper order the general dates for planting winter wheat, 

spring wheat, corn, mangels, cabbages, oats, potatoes, barley, alfalfa, 
clover, beans and other field and garden seeds. State the temperature 
at which each of these plants germinates the best. 

6. Name six conditions which influence soil temperature. 

7. What effect has (a) rolling, and (6) harrowing upon the temperature of 

the soil? 

8. Show by means of a diagram how the slope of the land may influence the 

temperature. 



(70) EXERCISE 26 (Continued) 



Grade. 
Date. . 



EXERCISE 27 



(71) 



Soil Ventilation 

Purpose. — To demonstrate the practical importance of soil ventilation and 
drainage, and to call attention to the manner in which the soil ventilation 
may be affected ])y the structure of the soil. 

PLAN* 

1. Secure four round pans about 8 inches deep. (Gallon cans will do.) 

2. Fill two of the pans to within one and one-half inches of the top with 

loose clay soil which has a good field condition of moisture. Then plant 
twenty grains of corn in each ])an l)y laying the corn on the surface of 
the soil and placing an inch of soil over the grains. 

3. Fill the third pan to the same height with the same kind of soil in a very 

compact condition. Plant twenty grains of corn in the same manner 
as before, except compact the soil over the grains. Prepare soil for Nos. 
1 and 3 together. 

4. Avoid puddling by giving plenty of time for diffusion of water. Great 

care is necessary to secure the right moisture conditions. 

5. Make a germinating pan of the fourth by filling it half full of sand. Place 

twenty grains of corn on the sand and cover with moist filter paper. 

6. Keep the pan moistened as shown in table and cover with oilcloth or waxed 

paper until seedlings are well up. 

7. See that the different pans are kept under the proper moisture conditioris. 

8. Observe the rate and percentage of germination each day in the shallow 

pan. 

9. At the end of ten days examine the pans closel}^ and make the following 

observations. 

Ventilation and Germination 



No. of Treatment of soil Per cent of 
pan germination 

1 


Strength of 
growth 


Appearance 
of seedings 


Kemarks 


1 


Loose, moist 






2 


Loose, wet 




3 


Compact, moist 1 




4 


Germination pan, moist 





* Adapted from Department of Soil Technology, Cornell University. 



(72) EXERCISE 27 (Continued) 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is soil ventilation? 

2. What is the effect of compacting the soil on the germination of the seeds? 

3. What effect did the wet condition of the soil have on the germination and 

growth? 

4. Is either compactness or excess of water likely to occur in sandy soil? 

5. What would be the effect of tile drainage on soil aeration in a heavy clay 

soil? 

6. Name the different forces which serve to change the air in the soil. 

7. Of what importance is ventilation to the bacteria which live on clover 

and alfalfa roots? 

8. What relation has ventilation to the decay of organic matter in the soil? 

9. State clearly why soil ventilation is important. 



EXERCISE 27 (Contixued) (73) 



Grade. 
Date. . 



(74) 



EXERCISE 28 



Amount of Organic Matter in Soils 



Purpose. — To compare roughly the relative amounts of organic matter in 
two different samples of field soils. 



PLAN 

1. Place a small amount of each soil in an evaporating dish and heat for 

several hours in an oven in order to drive off hygroscopic moisture. 

2. Number and carefully weigh on sensitive balances two or more crucibles 

with covers, 

3. Place in each crucible ten grams of the previously dried soil and ignite 

at a glowing temperature for an hour. Lift the cover occasionally to allow 
gases to escape. 

4. After the samples have been cooled in a closed chamber, weigh again and 

determine the loss of each. 

5. The loss in weight of each sample is largely due to the burning away of 

the organic matter. A part of the loss is due, however, to the escape of 
water, of crystallization, etc, 

6. Students having time for extra laboratory practice should test other 

samples for organic matter. 

Results 





Weight 

prucibk' 


Weight, crucible and soil 




Soil 


Before ignition 


After ignition 


Loss, grs- Loss, per cent 










1 






1 











QUESTIONS 

Do uplands or lowlands usually contain the most organic matter? Why? 



2. Is the percentage of organic matter present in any soil a good indication 

of its fertility? 

3. Do soils containing much organic matter plow easier or harder than others? 

4. What is meant bj^ active and inactive organic matter and what is their 

relative importance? Give examples of each. 



5 



EXERCISE 2S (Continued) (75) 

„. What is humus and how does it differ from organic matter? 

6. How much organic matter is tliere in an acre of normal soil? 

7. Give six of the most important lienefits of organic matter. 

8. Show clearly how the supply of organic matter may be maintained in 

different types of farming. 



Grade. 
Date. . 



(76) 



EXERCISE 29 



Absorption of Plant Food by Soils 
Purpose. — To show the power of soils to absorb solul^le food materials and 
humus and the influence of lime on this process. 

PLAN* 

1. Place six glass or metal percolators in the rack in their proper order. Fold 

small pieces of filter paper to be carefully inserted in the base of each 
percolator. 

2. Fill the percolators with soil as follows : 

No 1. 400 grams of clay loam. 
No. 2. 400 grams of clay loam. 
No. 3. 400 grams of clay loam with which there has been mixed 5 

grams of lime. 
No. 4. 400 grams of sandy loam. 
No. 5. 400 grams of sandy loam. 
No. 6. 400 grams sandy loam with which there has been thoroughly 

mixed 5 grams of lime. 

3. Add the following solutions to the designated portions of soil: 

Funnels Nos. 1, 3,. 4 and 6-300 cc. of manure extract. 

Funnels Nos. 2 and 5 — 300 cc. of potassium permanganate solution. 

4. Note carefully the rate of passage of the liquid through different portions 

of the soil. Collect and examine the first five cc. of solution that passes 

through the stem of each funnel, comparing its color with subsequent 

portions of the original liquid, and the different treatments one with 

l^lip oijiipr 

Absorption of Plant Food by Soils 



Kind of 
soil 


Lime 
treatment 


Solution 
treatment 


Time re- 
quired 
for 1st 
drop 


Color of 
1st por- 
tion of 
perco- 
late 


Color of 
latter 
portion 
of perco- 
late 


Reac- 
tion, 
litmus 


Remarks 




No lime 


Manure extract ^ 


: 


Clay loam 


No lime 


Permanganate 










Limed 


Manure e.xtract 










No lime 


Manure e.xtract 




1 






Sandy loam 


No lime 


Permanganate 












Limed 


Manure extract 









*Adapted from Department of Soil Technology, CorneU University. 



EXERCISE 29 fCoxTixuEo) (77) 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is absorption? 

2. How is the manure extract affected in passing tlu'ough th(> soil? 

3. How does Ume affect the process? 

4. What is leaching? 

5. What kind of soil would lose most by leaching? 

6. Would you follow the same method for applying nitrate of soda on a sandy 

soil as on a clay soil? Why? 

7. Which of the above two soils would be best plowed in the Fall? Why? 

8. What does this experiment teach us? 



Grade. 
Date. . 



(78) EXERCISE 30 

Testing Soils for Acidity 

Purpose. — There are three common tests for soil acidity. Any one of these 
should furnish fair evidence as to the need of the soil for lime. An agree- 
ment of the three tests should furnish conclusive evidence regarding the 
condition of the soil. The purpose of this exercise is to familiarize the 
student with the manipulation of these tests. 

PLAN 

Samples of the surface soil and subsoil of a soil well stocked with lime and 
samples of acid soils should l)e supplied. Acid phosphate, lime, fresh 
muck, wood ashes, silage, and horse manure also may be tested. 

I. Litmus Paper Test. — Take a tumbler with a smooth l)ottom. By means 

of forceps or the tips of the fingers select two pieces of litmus paper, one 
blue and the other neutral, and drop into the tuml)ler. Then cut a disk 
of filter paper and ]jlace in the bottom of the tumbler over the litmus 
paper. On top of this place two or three tablespoonfuls of the moist 
soil to be tested. If the soil is not moist enough add a small amount of 
rain or distilled water. Take a handful of the same soil and scjueeze into 
a ball. Break the ball and in the center insert a piece of blue litmus 
paper. With botli of these tests, if the soil is acid, the litmus paper should 
show a decided pink. 

II. Ammonia Test. — Take two tumblers and fill each about three-quarters 

full of distilled or rain water. To the first add a few drops of common 
ammonia. Then into each tuml^ler stir a tablespoonful of the soil to 
be tested, being careful to use two spoons and keep each in its respec- 
tive glass. Stir the contents of each glass thoroughly for three or four 
minutes and set aside for a few hours. At tlie end of that time examine 
the contents of each glass. If the soil needs lime the water standing 
above the soil in the glass in which the ammonia has been added will 
have a dark, reddish-brown or black appearance, while the water in 
the other glass will be very nearly clear. On the other hand, if the soil 
is well stocked with carbonates of lime or magnesia, the soil water 
in l^oth glasses will l)e entirely clear. 

III. Hydrochloric Acid Test. — Place a small quantity of soil in an evaporating 
dish and pour on this three or four drops of hydrochloric acid. If l)ubbles 
escape it is a sign that there is an abundance of carbonates. If there 
is no effervescence the soil lacks carbonates and is probably acid. 



EXERCISE 30 (Continued) 
Color or Action of Indicator 



(79) 



Name of test 


Surface soil 
1 


Subsoil Surface soil 
1 2 


Subsoil 
2 


Litmus paper (tumbler) 






Litmus paper (ball) . . 






Ammonia 












Check 






Acid 









QUESTIONS 

1. What effect have the moist fingers upon litmus pai)er? 

2. Write the reaction which occurs when carbonate of lime or other bases 

in th(> soil are acted upon by hydrochloric acid. 

3. Why (lo(\s the wasiiing of an acid soil in the presence of ammonia have a 

brown color? 

4. Why is it necessary to test the subsoil as well as the surface soil? 



Grade. 
Date. . 



(80) 



EXERCISE 31 



Examination of Chemical Fertilizers 
Fill a column as nearly as possible for each sample of fertilizer examined. 





Sample 1 


Sample 2 


Sample .3 


Sample 4 


Fertilizer 










Source 






{ 


Amount of: Nitrogen. 








Phosphoric acid ... 










Potash 








Lime 






' 


Color ... 






1 


Smell 


1 




Taste 








Crystal, powder, etc. 








Deliquescent 
























Availability: 

Immediately 










Quickly 








Slowly 










Very slowly 








Cost per ton 






i 


Value per lb. of: 

Nitrogen 






1 
1 


Phosphoric acid 








Potash 






i 

1 


Remarks : 









EXERCISE 31 (Continued) (81) 

QUESTIONS 

1. How would you distinguish nitrate of soda from muriate of potash? 

2. How does rock phosphate differ from acid phosphate? 

3. Is the phosphoric acid in dissolved bones more availal)le than in acid 

phosphate? 

4. How does dried blood differ from tankage? 

5. What is the use of peat or muck in mixed fertilizers and what is its fertility 

value? 

6. Is lime a good material to use with mixed fertilizer and why? 



Grade. 
Date.. 



(82) 



EXERCISE 32 



Study of Plowing 

" The art of agriculture will never ri.se higlier than the man who manages the land.'* 

Plowing is the oldest, the most fundamental and far-reaching operation in 
soil management. In perhaps no other farm operation is the character 
and skill of a man reflected so strongly as in the furrow which he turns 
with his plow. The freshly turned earth, as well as his horses and plow, 
are all silent witnesses (Fig. 18). 





Fig. is. — Preparinsr him.self for ;i soil-pl'iwing pontpst. 
SCORE CARD FOR PLOWING 



Perfect 
Score 


i 




Striking out land 


20 


L 




Line of furrow 


15 


1 














Proper inversion of furrow slice 


15 1 






Soil properly jiulverized 


5 


1 








Furrow of uniform width. . . . 


. .10 














Furrow of uniform depth 15 




i 




Trash covered : . . 10 
























. . .5 


1 
















Handling team 


5 










Total 


100 


1 
1 











EXERCISE 32 (Continued) 



(83) 



THE PLOW AS ADAPTED TO PURPOSES 

1. Shape of mold board (Figs. 19, 20 and 21 J 10 

2. Selection and adjustment of coulter and jointer 15 

3. Condition of wearing surfaces and cutting edges 20 

4. Adjustment and hitch of p\rn\ l-^ 

5. ^^'eight ^^ 

Draft ^ 



6. 



The Nairn' Power 

Size and alMlity of team to do work 5 

Harness " 5 



Condition of Soil for Ploiring 

9. Soil in proi)er moisture condition 

10. Proper depth and width of furrow 



10 
10 



Total. 



100 



Texture and condition of soil , 

Width of furrow 

Remarks : 



Depth . 




Fig. 19 -Sod plow which does not pulverize the soil very much. Moldboiird long and gently curved. 



(84) 



EXERCISE 32 (Continued) 




Fig. 20. — Stubble pluw, with a steep moldboard abruptly curved. 



^r^^ 




MOLD BOARD 



SHARE 



Fig. 21. — General purpose plow. 



Grade. 
Date. . 



EXERCISE 33 (85) 

Examination an]) Discussion of Tillage Machinery 

Side hill or reversible 
Land.sicle (walking) 

Plows i Sulky (one way) 

Sulky (two wajO 
Disk 

Full disk Spring tooth 

Harrows \ Cutaway Spike tooth 

Spading Acme 

Meeker 

f Riding 

/-,,,•* ] Coulter (common) 

Cultivators < .. i . ,, 

I Siiiketooth 

[ Spring tooth 



Soil Firmers. 



Solid Roller Packer and inulcher 

Corrugated roller Planker 



questions 

1. IVIake a drawing of a section of each one of these harrows. 

2. When should fall i^lowed land l)e harrowed? 

3. When should spring plow(Hl land l)e harrowed? 

4. If a man could have but one harrow what one sliould he choose? 

5. Under what contlitions wotild each cue of the disk harrows give the most 

satisfactory results? 

6. If a soil on a certain farm is somewhat uniformly a medium loam what 

two harrows would l^e the most economical to piu-cliase? 

7. Describe the work of the Acme harrow. 

8. What type of work leaves the soil the lightest and loosest and which oik* 

compacts it the most? 

9. Which harrow works the soil the deepest? 

10. Whicli harrow is adapted to the interculture of croi)s? 

11. Why should harrows be as wide as possible? 

12. What are the advantages of the corrugatetl roller? 

13. What are the advantages of rolling and when should it be done? 

14. What type of cultivator is the most popular and why? 

15. jMake a drawing of the different types of coulters and jointers. used on 

plows. State clearly the use and value of each. 

16. What are the advantages of the planker? 



(86) EXERCISE 33 (Continued) 



EXERCISE 33 (Continued) (87) 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




